Artículos relacionadosArtículos relacionadosArtículos relacionados
Artículos afines de siicsalud publicados en los últimos 4 meses
AMLODIPINA PARA EL TRATAMIENTO DE LA HIPERTENSIÓN EN PACIENTES INTERNADOS
Pragmatic and Observational Research 15:121-137
Difundido en siicsalud: 11 nov 2024
TRATAMIENTO DE LA HIPERTENSIÓN ARTERIAL – GUÍAS 2024 DE LA SOCIEDAD EUROPEA DE HIPERTENSIÓN ARTERIAL
European Journal of Internal Medicine 126:1-15
Difundido en siicsalud: 9 sep 2024

TRATAMIENTO DE LA HIPERTENSION ARTERIAL EN LA NEFROPATIA DIABETICA AVANZADA

(especial para SIIC © Derechos reservados)
La nefropatía diabética es la primera causa de requerimiento de sustitución de la función renal. Se presenta el estado del conocimiento de la fisiopatología de la hipertensión arterial en el paciente con diabetes tipo 2 con nefropatía progresiva, actuando como factor de riesgo para esta progresión y para las complicaciones vasculares, para permitir la selección de la estrategia terapéutica más adecuada.
wasserman9_72712.jpg Autor:
Alfredo Wassermann
Columnista Experto de SIIC

Institución:
FEPREVA


Artículos publicados por Alfredo Wassermann
Coautor
Cristina Patricia Grosso* 
Médica Especialista en Medicina Interna, Nutrición y Diabetes, FEPREVA, Buenos Aires, Argentina*
Recepción del artículo
31 de Agosto, 2011
Aprobación
14 de Junio, 2012
Primera edición
1 de Agosto, 2012
Segunda edición, ampliada y corregida
7 de Junio, 2021

Resumen
La diabetes afecta aproximadamente al 10% de la población adulta, por lo que constituye la etiología más frecuente de enfermedad renal entre los pacientes que requieren hemodiálisis. La hipertensión está frecuentemente asociada con la diabetes tipo 2, en la que se presenta como diagnóstico previo, concomitante o posterior, y a la diabetes tipo 1, como consecuencia de la nefropatía. La hipertensión incrementa el riesgo cardiovascular y acelera la progresión de la nefropatía, en tanto que su tratamiento retrasa los eventos cardiovasculares y renales. Los mecanismos principalmente involucrados en la hipertensión y progresión de la nefropatía son la expansión secundaria a la reabsorción incrementada de sodio y la sobreestimulación del sistema renina-angiotensina-aldosterona, y la vasoconstricción por desregulación de los moduladores de la resistencia vascular. Los objetivos generales del tratamiento antihipertensivo en el paciente con diabetes son lograr una presión arterial sistólica < 130 mm Hg y diastólica < 80 mm Hg, y menores en el paciente proteinúrico (< 125/75 mm Hg). Para alcanzar estos objetivos debe restringirse la ingesta de sodio a < 2 000 mg/día, considerándose los inhibidores del sistema renina angiotensina como las drogas de elección inicial para retrasar la disminución del filtrado glomerular. El algoritmo del tratamiento antihipertensivo sugiere la modificación de los hábitos de vida y asociaciones farmacológicas orientadas fisiopatológicamente para alcanzar los objetivos.

Palabras clave
hipertensión, nefropatía diabética, insuficiencia renal crónica


Artículo completo

(castellano)
Extensión:  +/-11.25 páginas impresas en papel A4
Exclusivo para suscriptores/assinantes

Abstract
Diabetes mellitus affects approximately 10% of the adult population. Diabetic nephropathy is the main etiology of end stage renal disease. Hypertension is extremely frequent among type 2 diabetes patients, being diagnosed prior to, simultaneously with or after diabetes itself. Among type 1 diabetes patients hypertension is generally a consequence of diabetic nephropathy. Hypertension is a principal risk factor for cardiovascular disease and for nephropathy progression, while its treatment prevents cardiovascular and renal events. Pathophysiology of hypertension and nephropathy in diabetes involves increased sodium reabsorption and vasoconstriction mediated by upregulation of the renin angiotensin aldosterone system and imbalanced modulators of vascular tone. The general targets for hypertension treatment in diabetes patients are systolic < 130 mm Hg and diastolic < 80 mm Hg, which should be lower in proteinuric patients (< 125/75 mm Hg). To reach these targets patients should restrict dietary sodium to < 2 000 mg/day. First line drugs are the inhibitors of the renin angiotensin aldosterone system, because multiple studies showed they could delay renal disease progression. The algorithm for hypertension treatment in advanced diabetes nephropathy involves lifestyle counseling and multiple drug regimens which should be pathophysiologically oriented.

Key words
hypertension, diabetic nephropathy, chronic kidney disease


Clasificación en siicsalud
Artículos originales > Expertos de Iberoamérica >
página   www.siicsalud.com/des/expertocompleto.php/

Especialidades
Principal: Cardiología, Nefrología y Medio Interno
Relacionadas: Atención Primaria, Diabetología, Endocrinología y Metabolismo, Geriatría, Medicina Familiar, Medicina Interna



Comprar este artículo
Extensión: 11.25 páginas impresas en papel A4

file05.gif (1491 bytes) Artículos seleccionados para su compra



Enviar correspondencia a:
Alfredo Wassermann, FEPREVA Fundación para el Estudio, la Prevención y el Tratamiento de la Enfermedad Vascular Aterosclerótica , 1429, Núñez 2602, 1° A, Buenos Aires, Argentina
Bibliografía del artículo
Bibliografía
1. US Renal Data System (USRDS). Annual data report: 2009. Atlas of Chronic Kidney Disease and End-Stage Renal Disease in the United States.Bethesda, MD: National Institutes of Health, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases 2009. http://www.usrds.org/adr_2009.htm. Último acceso 16 de enero de 2012.
2. Stel VS, van de Luijtgaarden MW, Wanner C, Jager KJ; on behalf of the European Renal Registry Investigators. The 2008 ERA-EDTA Registry Annual Report-a précis. NDT Plus 4:1-13, 2011
3. www.san.org.ar/docs/INFORME-PRELIMINAR-REGISTRO-2009-2010_VERSION-ESPANOL.pdf. Último acceso 16 de enero de 2011.
4. National Kidney Foundation. KDOQI clinical practice guidelines and clinical practice recommendations for diabetes and chronic kidney disease. Am J Kidney Dis 49 (Suppl 2):S12-S154, 2007.
5. American Diabetes Association. Standards of medical care in diabetes-2010. Diabetes Care 33 (Suppl 1):S11-S61, 2010.
6. Chobanian AV, Bakris GL, Black HR, y col. Seventh report of the Joint National Committee on Prevention, Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Pressure. Hypertension 42:1206-1252, 2003.
7. Van Buren PN, Toto R. Hypertension in diabetic nephropathy: epidemiology, mechanisms, and management. Adv Chronic Kidney Dis 18:28-41, 2011.
8. Plantinga LC, Crews DC, Coresh J, y col. Prevalence of chronic kidney disease in US adults with undiagnosed diabetes or prediabetes. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 5:673-682, 2010.
9. Norgaard K, Feldt-Rasmussen B, Johnsen K, y col. Prevalence of hypertension in type 1 (insulin dependent) diabetes mellitus. Diabetologia 33:407-410, 1990.
10. Epstein M, Sowers J. Diabetes mellitus and hypertension. Hypertension 19:403-418, 1992.
11. UK Prospective Diabetes Study (UKPDS) Group. Tight blood pressure control and risk of macrovascular and microvascular complications in type 2 diabetes: UKPDS 38. BMJ 317:703-713, 1998.
12. Adler AI, Stratton IM, Neil HA, y col. Association of systolic blood pressure with macrovascular and microvascular complications of type 2 diabetes (UKPDS 36): prospective observational study. BMJ 321:412-419, 2000.
13. Maki DD, Ma JZ, Louis TA, Kasiske BL. Long-term effects of antihypertensive agents on proteinuria and renal function. Arch Intern Med 155:1073-1080, 1995.
14. Parving HH, Andersen AR, Smidt UM, y col. Effect of antihypertensive treatment on kidney function in diabetic nephropathy. Br Med J 294:1443-1447, 1987.
15. Mogensen CE, Keane WF, Bennett PH, y col. Prevention of diabetic renal disease with special reference to microalbuminuria. Lancet 346:1080-1084, 1995.
16. Ismail N, Becker B, Strzelczyk P, y col. Renal disease and hypertension in non-insulin dependent diabetes mellitus. Kidney Int 55:1-28, 1999.
17. Bakris G, Williams M, Dworkin L, y col. Preserving renal function in adults with hypertension and diabetes: a consensus approach. Am J Kidney Dis 36:646-661, 2000.
18. Levey AS, de Jong PE, Coresh J, y col. The definition, classification, and prognosis of chronic kidney disease: a KDIGO Controversies Conference report. Kidney Int 80:17-28, 2011.
19. http://www.senefro.org/modules.php?name=calcfg. Último acceso 16 de enero de 2012.
20. Kramer CK, Leitao CB, Pinto LC, Silveiro SP, Gross JL, Canani LH. Clinical and laboratory profile of patients with type 2 diabetes with low glomerular filtration rate and normoalbuminuria. Diabetes Care 30:1998-2000, 2007.
21. Gu JW, Anand V, Shek E, y col. Sodium induces hypertrophy of cultured myocardial myoblasts and vascular smooth muscle cells. Hypertension 31:1083-1087, 1998.
22. Anderson F, Jung F, Ingelfinger JR. Renal rennin-angiotensin system in diabetes: functional, immunohistochemical, and molecular biological correlations. Am J Renal Phys 265 (4 Pt. 2):F477-F486, 1993.
23. Price D, De'Oliveira J, Fisher N, y col. The state and responsiveness of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. Am J Hypertens 12:348, 1999.
24. Jain G, Campbell RC, Warnock DG. Mineralocorticoid receptor blockers and chronic kidney disease. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 4:1685-1691, 2009.
25. Marney AM, Brown NJ. Aldosterone and end-organ damage. Clin Sci (Lond) 113:267-278, 2007.
26. Lea WB, Kwak ES, Luther JM, y col. Aldosterone antagonism or synthase inhibition reduces end-organ damage induced by treatment with angiotensin and high salt. Kidney Int 75:936-944, 2009.
27. Xue C, Siragy HM. Local renal aldosterone system and its regulation by salt, diabetes, and angiotensin II type 1 receptor. Hypertension 46:584-590, 2005.
28. Imanishi M, Yoshioka K, Okumura M, y col. sodium sensitivity related to albuminuria appearing before hypertension in type 2 diabetic patients. Diabetes Care 24:111-116, 2001.
29. Mancia G, De Backer G, Dominiczak A, y col. 2007 Guidelines for the Management of Arterial Hypertension: The Task Force for the Management of Arterial Hypertension of the European Society of Hypertension (ESH) and of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC). J Hypertens 25:1105-1187, 2007.
30. Saydah SH, Fradkin J, Cowie CC. Poor control of risk factors for vascular disease among adults with previously diagnosed diabetes. JAMA 291:335-342, 2004.
31. Law MR, Morris JK, Wald NJ. Use of blood pressure lowering drugs in the prevention of cardiovascular disease: meta-analysis of 147 randomised trials in the context of expectations from prospective epidemiological studies. BMJ 338:b1665, 2009.
32. Blood Pressure Lowering Treatment Trialists' Collaboration. Effects of different regimens to lower blood pressure on major cardiovascular events in older and younger adults: meta-analysis of randomised trials. BMJ 336:1122, 2008.
33. Hansson L, Zanchetti A, Carruthers SG, y col. Effects of intensive blood-pressure lowering and low-dose aspirin in patients with hypertension: principal results of the Hypertension Optimal Treatment (HOT) randomised trial. Lancet 351:1755-1762, 1998.
34. Nelson RG, Bennett PH, Beck GJ, y col. Development and progression of renal disease in Pima Indians with non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. N Engl J Med 335:1636-1642, 1996.
35. Dronavalli S, Duka I, Bakris GL. The pathogenesis of diabetic nephropathy. Nat Clin Pract Endocrinol Metab 4:444-452, 2008.
36. Kalaitzidis R, Bakris G. Pathogenesis and treatment of microalbuminuria in patients with diabetes: the road ahead. J Clin Hypertens (Greenwich) 11:636-643, 2009.
37. Steinke JM, Sinaiko AR, Kramer MS, Suissa S, Chavers BM, Mauer M; International Diabetic Nephopathy Study Group. The early natural history of nephropathy in Type 1 Diabetes: III. Predictors of 5-year urinary albumin excretion rate patterns in initially normoalbuminuric patients. Diabetes 54:2164-2171, 2005.
38. Aronow WS, Fleg JL, Pepine CJ, y col. ACCF/AHA 2011 expert consensus document on hypertension in the elderly: a report of the American College of Cardiology Foundation Task Force on Clinical Expert Consensus Documents developed in collaboration with the American Academy of Neurology, American Geriatrics Society, American Society for Preventive Cardiology, American Society of Hypertension, American Society of Nephrology, Association of Black Cardiologists, and European Society of Hypertension. J Am Soc Hypertens 5:259-352, 2011.
39. Franklin SS, Khan SA, Wong ND, Larson MG, Levy D. Is pulse pressure useful in predicting risk for coronary heart disease? The Framingham Heart Study. Circulation 100:354-360, 1999.
40. Russo D, Morrone LF, Brancaccio S, y col. Pulse pressure and presence of coronary artery calcification. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 4:316-322, 2009.
41. Bakris GL, Gaxiola E, Messerli FH, y col. Clinical outcomes in the diabetes cohort of the INternational VErapamil SR-Trandolapril study. Hypertension 44:637-642, 2004.
42. Cruickshank JM. Clinical importance of coronary perfusion pressure in the hypertensive patient with left ventricular hypertrophy. Cardiology 81:283-290, 1992.
43. The ACCORD Study Group. Effects of intensive blood pressure control in type 2 diabetes mellitus. N Engl J Med 362:1575-1585, 2010.
44. Kalaitzidis R, Bakris GL. Lower blood pressure goals for cardiovascular and renal risk reduction: are they defensible? J Clin Hypertens (Greenwich) 11:345-347, 2009.
45. Messerli FH, Mancia G, Conti CR, y col. Dogma disputed: can aggressively lowering blood pressure in hypertensive patients with coronary artery disease be dangerous? Ann Intern Med 144:884-893, 2006.
46. Reboldi G, Gentile G, Angeli F, Ambrosio G, Mancia G, Verdecchia P. Effects of intensive blood pressure reduction on myocardial infarction and stroke in diabetes: a meta-analysis in 73,913 patients. J Hypertens 29:1253-1269, 2011.
47. Berl T, Hunsicker L, Lewis J, y col. Impact of achieved blood pressure on cardiovascular outcomes in the irbesartan diabetic nephropathy trial. J Am Soc Nephrol 16:2170-2179, 2005.
48. Sarnak MJ, Greene T, Wang X, y col. The effect of a lower target blood pressure on the progression of kidney disease: long-term follow-up of the modification of diet in renal disease study. Ann Intern Med 142:342-351, 2005.
49. Appel LJ, Wright JT Jr, Greene T, y col. Intensive blood-pressure control in hypertensive chronic kidney disease. N Engl J Med 363:918-929, 2010.
50. Bakris G, Weir M, Shanifar S, y col. Effects of blood pressure level on progression of diabetic nephropathy. Arch Int Med 163:1555-1565, 2003.
51. De Galan B, Perkovic V, Ninomiya T. Lowering blood pressure reduces renal events in type 2 diabetes. J Am Soc Nephrol 20:883-892, 2009.
52. Ritz E, Koleganova N, Piecha G. Role of sodium intake in the progression of chronic kidney disease. J Ren Nutr 19:61-62, 2009.
53. Flock MR, Kris-Etherton PM. Dietary Guidelines for Americans 2010: implications for cardiovascular disease. Curr Atheroscler Rep 13:499-507, 2011.
54. Rodriguez-Iturbe B, Correa-Rotter R. Cardiovascular risk factors and prevention of cardiovascular disease in patients with chronic renal disease. Expert Opin Pharmacother 11:2687-2698, 2010.
55. Mogensen CE. Diabetic Renal Disease: The Quest for Normotension-and Beyond. Diabetic Medicine 12:756-769, 1995.
56. Mauer M, Zinman B, Gardiner R, y col. Renal and retinal effects of enalapril and losartan in type 1 diabetes. Engl J Med 361:40-51, 2009.
57. Mogensen CE. Long-term antihypertensive treatment inhibiting progression of diabetic nephropathy. Br Med J 285:685-688, 1982.
58. Parving HH, Smidt UM, Andersen AR, y col. Early aggressive antihypertensive treatment reduces rate of decline in kidney function in diabetic nephropathy. Lancet 321:1175-1179, 1983.
59. Turnbull F, Neal B, Algert C, y col. Effects of different blood pressure-lowering regimens on major cardiovascular events in individuals with and without diabetes mellitus: results of prospectively designed overviews of randomized trials. Arch Intern Med 165:1410-1419, 2005.
60. Lewis EJ, Hunsicker LG, Bain RP, y col, The Collaborative Study Group. The effect of angiotensin-converting-enzyme inhibition on diabetic nephropathy. N Engl J Med 329:1456-1462, 1993.
61. Parving HH, Hommel E, Jensen BR, y col. Long-term beneficial effect of ACE inhibition on diabetic nephropathy in normotensive type 1 diabetic patients. Kidney Int 60:228-234, 2001.
62. Lewis EJ, Hunsicker LG, Clarke WR, y col. Renoprotective effect of the angiotensin-receptor antagonist irbesartan in patients with nephropathy due to type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med 345:851-860, 2001.
63. Brenner BM, Cooper ME, de Zeeuw D, y col. Effects of losartan on renal and cardiovascular outcomes in patients with type 2 diabetes and nephropathy. N Engl J Med 345:861-869, 2001.
64. Ruggenenti P, Perna A, Remuzzi G. Retarding progression of chronic renal disease: the neglected issue of residual proteinuria. Kidney Int 63:2254-2261, 2003.
65. The GISEN Group (Gruppo Italiano di Studi Epidemiologici in Nefrologia). Randomised placebo-controlled trial of effect of ramipril on decline in glomerular filtration rate and risk of terminal renal failure in proteinuric, non-diabetic nephropathy. Lancet 349:1857-1863, 1997.
66. Ibsen H, Olsen MH, Wachtell K, y col. Does albuminuria predict cardiovascular outcomes on treatment with losartan versus atenolol in patients with diabetes, hypertension, and left ventricular hypertrophy? The LIFE study. Diabetes Care 29:595-600, 2006.
67. Parving HH, Lehnert H, Brochner-Mortensen J, y col. The effect of irbesartan on the development of diabetic nephropathy in patients with type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med 345:870-878, 2001.
68. Bakris GL, Sarafidis PA, Weir MR, y col.; ACCOMPLISH Trial investigators. Renal outcomes with different fixed-dose combination therapies in patients with hypertension at high risk for cardiovascular events (ACCOMPLISH): a prespecified secondary analysis of a randomised controlled trial. Lancet 375:1173-1181, 2010.
69. Bakris GL, Toto RD, McCullough PA, Rocha R, Purkayastha D, Davis P; GUARD (Gauging Albuminuria Reduction With Lotrel in Diabetic Patients With Hypertension) Study Investigators. Effects of different ACE inhibitor combinations on albuminuria: results of the GUARD study. Kidney Int 2008.
70. National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence. Hypertension: clinical management of primary hypertension in adults. CG127. 2011. http://guidance.nice.org.uk/CG127/Guidance/pdf/English. Último acceso 16 de enero de 2012.
71. Zillich A, Garg J, Basu S, y col. Thiazide diuretics, potassium, and the development of diabetes: a quantitative review. Hypertension 48:219-224, 2006.
72. Wassermann A. ¿Hay que abandonar la hidroclorotiazida como diurético de elección en la hipertensión arterial? Revista de la Sociedad Argentina de Cardiología 77:152-155, 2011.
73. Calhoun DA, Jones D, Textor S, y col. American Heart Association Professional Education Committee. Resistant hypertension: diagnosis, evaluation, and treatment: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association Professional Education Committee of the Council for High Blood Pressure Research. Circulation 117:e510-526, 2008.
74. Stergiou GS, Makris T, Papavasiliou M, y col. Comparison of antihypertensive effects of an angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor, a calcium antagonist and a diuretic in patients with hypertension not controlled by angiotensin receptor blocker monotherapy. J Hypertens 23:883-889, 2005.
75. Kunz R, Friedrich C, Wolbers M, y col. Meta-analysis: effect of monotherapy and combination therapy with inhibitors of the renin-angiotensin system on proteinuria in renal disease. Ann Int Med 148:30-48, 2008.
76. Schjoedt KJ, Astrup AS, Persson F, y col. Optimal dose of lisinopril for renoprotection in type 1 diabetic patients with diabetic nephropathy: a randomised crossover trial. Diabetologia 52:46-49, 2009.
77. Van Buren PN, Adams-Huet B, Toto RD. Effective antihypertensive strategies for high-risk patients with diabetic nephropathy. J Investig Med 58:950-956, 2010.
78. Weir MR, Hollenberg, NK, Zappe DH, y col. Antihypertensive effects of double the maximum dose of valsartan in African-American patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus and albuminuria J Hypertens 28:186-193.
79. Forclaz A, Maillard M, Nussberger J, Brunner HR, Burnier M. Angiotensin II receptor blockade: is there truly a benefit of adding an ACE inhibitor? Hypertension 41:31-36, 2003.
80. Rossing K, Schjoedt KJ, Jensen BR, Boomsma F, Parving HH. Enhanced renoprotective effects of ultrahigh doses of irbesartan in patients with type 2 diabetes and microalbuminuria. Kidney Int 68:1190-1198, 2005.
81. Hollenberg NK, Parving HH, Viberti G, y col. Albuminuria response to very high-dose valsartan in type 2 diabetes mellitus. J Hypertens 25:1921-1926, 2007.
82. Schmieder RE, Klingbeil AU, Fleischmann EH, Veelken R, Delles C. Additional antiproteinuric effect of ultrahigh dose candesartan: a double-blind, randomized, prospective study. J Am Soc Nephrol 16:3038-3045, 2005.
83. Burgess E, Muirhead N, Rene de Cotret P, Chiu A, Pichette V, Tobe S. SMART (Supra Maximal Atacand Renal Trial) Investigators. Supramaximal dose of candesartan in proteinuric renal disease. J Am Soc Nephrol 20:893-900, 2009.
84. Hou FF, Xie D, Zhang X, y col., Renoprotection of Optimal Antiproteinuric Doses (ROAD) Study: a randomized controlled study of benazepril and losartan in chronic renal insufficiency. J Am Soc Nephrol 18:1889-1898, 2007.
85. Galle J, Schwedhelm E, Pinnetti S, Böger RH, Wanner C; VIVALDI investigators. Antiproteinuric effects of angiotensin receptor blockers: telmisartan versus valsartan in hypertensive patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus and overt nephropathy. Nephrol Dial Transplant 23:3174-3183, 2008.
86. Hollenberg NK, Fisher ND, Price DA. Pathways for angiotensin II generation in intact human tissue: evidence from comparative pharmacological interruption of the renin system. Hypertension 32:387-392, 1998.
87. Park S, Bivona B J, Kobori H, y col. Major role for ACEindependent intrarenal ANG II formation in type II diabetes. Am J Physiol Renal Physiol 298:F37-48, 2010.
88. Komine N, Khang S, Wead LM, Blantz RC, Gabbai FB. Effect of combining an ACE inhibitor and an angiotensin II receptor blocker on plasma and kidney tissue angiotensin II levels. Am J Kidney Dis 39:159-164, 2010.
89. Ferrario CM, Jessup J, Chappell MC, y col. Effect of angiotensinconverting enzyme inhibition and angiotensin II receptor blockers on cardiac angiotensin-converting enzyme 2. Circulation 111:2605-2610, 2005.
90. Jacobsen P, Andersen S, Jensen B, y col. Additive effect of ace inhibition and angiotensin II receptor blockade in type 1 diabetic patients with diabetic nephropathy. J Am Soc Nephrol 14:992-999, 2003.
91. Jacobsen P, Andersen S, Rossing K, y col. Dual blockade of the renin-angiotensin system versus maximal recommended dose of ACE inhibition in diabetic nephropathy. Kidney Int 63:1874-1880, 2003.
92. Andersen NH, Poulsen PL, Knudsen ST, y col. Long-term dual blockade with candesartan and lisinopril in hypertensive patients with diabetes: the CALM II study. Diabetes Care 28:273-277, 2005.
93. The ONTARGET Investigators. Telmisartan, ramipril, or both in patients at high risk for vascular events. N Engl J Med 358:1547-1559, 2008.
94. Mann JF, Schmieder RE, McQueen M, y col. Renal outcomes with telmisartan, ramipril, or both, in people at high vascular risk (the ONTARGET study): a multicentre, randomised, double-blind, controlled trial. Lancet 372:547-553, 2008.
95. Pfeffer MA, McMurray JJ, Velazquez EJ, Rouleau JL, Køber L, Maggioni AP, Solomon SD, Swedberg K, Van de Werf F, White H, Leimberger JD, Henis M, Edwards S, Zelenkofske S, Sellers MA, Califf RM; Valsartan in Acute Myocardial Infarction Trial Investigators. Valsartan, captopril, or both in myocardial infarction complicated by heart failure, left ventricular dysfunction, or both. N Engl J Med 2003.
96. Imai E, Chan JC, Ito S, y col; ORIENT study investigators. Effects of olmesartan on renal and cardiovascular outcomes in type 2 diabetes with overt nephropathy: a multicentre, randomised, placebo-controlled study. Diabetologia 54:2978-2986, 2011.
97. de Zeeuw D, Remuzzi G, Parving HH, Keane WF, Zhang Z, Shahinfar S, Snapinn S, Cooper ME, Mitch WE, Brenner BM: Albuminuria, a therapeutic target for cardiovascular protection in type 2 diabetic patients with nephropathy. Circulation 110:921-927, 2004.
98. Heart Outcomes Prevention Evaluation Study Investigators: Effects of ramipril on cardiovascular and microvascular outcomes in people with diabetes mellitus: Results of the HOPE study Lancet 355:253-259, 2000.
99. Gaede P, Vedel P, Larsen N, Jensen GV, Parving HH, Pedersen O: Multifactorial intervention and cardiovascular disease in patients with type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med 348:383-393, 2003.
100. Department of Veterans Affairs; Combination Angiotensin Receptor Blocker and Angiotensin Converting Enzyme Inhibitor for Treatment of Diabetic Nephropathy VA NEPHRON-D Study: Nephropathy iN Diabetes Study. Disponible en http://www.clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT00555217. Último acceso 16 de enero de 2012.
101. Maione A, Nicolucci A, Craig JC, y col. Protocol of the Long-term Impact of RAS Inhibition on Cardiorenal Outcomes (LIRICO) randomized trial. J Nephrol 20:646-655, 2007.
102. Mario Negri Institute for Pharmacological Research. Preventing ESRD in Overt Nephropathy of Type 2 Diabetes (VALID). 2011. Available at: http://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT00494715. Último acceso 16 de enero de 2012.
103. Alfie J, Aparicio LS, Waisman GD. Current strategies to achieve further cardiac and renal protection through enhanced renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system inhibition. Rev Recent Clin Trials 6:134-146, 2011.
104. Persson F, Rossing P, Schjoedt KJ, y col. Time course of the antiproteinuric and antihypertensive effects of direct renin inhibition in type 2 diabetes. Kidney Int 73:1419-1425, 2008.
105. Parving HH, Persson F, Lewis JB e t al. Aliskiren combined with losartan in type 2 diabetes and nephropathy. N Engl J Med 358:2433-2446, 2008.
106. http://www.novartis.com/newsroom/media-releases/en/2011/1572562.shtml. Último acceso 16 de enero de 2012.
107. Schjoedt KJ, Andersen S, Rossing P, y col. Aldosterone escape during blockade of the rennin angiotensin-aldosterone system in diabetic nephropathy is associated with enhanced decline in glomerular filtration rate. Diabetologia 47:1936-1939, 2004.
108. Bomback AS, Klemmer PJ. The incidence and implications of aldosterone breakthrough. Nat Clin Pract Nephrol 3:486-492, 2007.
109. Krum H, Nolly H, Workman D, y col. Efficacy of eplerenone added to renin-angiotensin blockade in hypertensive patients. Hypertension 40:117-123, 2002.
110. Gaddam KK, Nishizaka MK, Pratt-Ubunama MN, y col. Characterization of resistant hypertension: association between resistant hypertension, aldosterone, and persistent intravascular volume expansion. Arch Intern Med 168:1159-1164, 2008.
111. Schjoedt K, Rossing K, Juhl T, y col. Beneficial impact of spironolactone on nephritic range albuminuria in diabetic nephropathy. Kidney Int 70:S36-S42, 2006.
112. Khosla N, Kalaitzidis R, Bakris G. Predictors of hyperkalemia risk following hypertension control with aldosterone blockade. Am J Nephrol 30:418-424, 2009.
113. Mehdi UF, Adams-Huet B, Raskin P, y col.: Addition of angiotensin receptor blockade or mineralocorticoid antagonism to maximal angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibition in diabetic nephropathy. J Am Soc Nephrol 20:2641-2650, 2009.
114. Bomback AS, Kshirsagar AV, Amamoo MA, Klemmer PJ. Change in proteinuria after adding aldosterone blockers to ACE inhibitors or angiotensin receptor blockers in CKD: a systematic review. Am J Kidney Dis 51:199-211, 2008.
115. Epstein M, Williams GH, Weinberger M, y col. Selective aldosterone blockade with eplerenone reduces albuminuria in patients with type 2 diabetes. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 1:940-951, 2006.
116. Wassermann A. Algoritmo terapéutico de la hipertensión en el paciente con diabetes tipo 2 y nefropatía. En Menéndez E, Elbert A. Actualización de los aspectos metabólicos y las complicaciones de los pacientes con diabetes y enffermedad renal. Diagnóstico y tratamiento. Nefrología Argentina 8 (Supl. 1, parte1):60-63, 2010.
117. Bakris GL. Recognition, pathogenesis, and treatment of different stages of nephropathy in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. Mayo Clin Proc 86:444-456, 2011.
118. Bakris GL, Sowers JR, on behalf of the American Society of Hypertension Writing Group. Treatment of hypertension in patients with diabetes-an update. J Am Soc Hypertens 4:62-67, 2010
119. Gradman AH, Basile JN, Carter BL, Bakris GL. Combination therapy in hypertension. J Am Soc Hypertens 4:42-50, 2010.

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Está expresamente prohibida la redistribución y la redifusión de todo o parte de los contenidos de la Sociedad Iberoamericana de Información Científica (SIIC) S.A. sin previo y expreso consentimiento de SIIC.
Artículos relacionadosMás relacionadosAtículos relacionados
HIPERTENSIÓN ARTERIAL Y DETERIORO COGNITIVO
Hypertension 80(1):22-34
Difundido en siicsalud: 24 sep 2024
ua31618
Home

Copyright siicsalud © 1997-2024 ISSN siicsalud: 1667-9008